References:
E. J. Lowe / The Four-Category Ontology: a metaphysical foundation for natural science
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.J._Lowe
http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/philosophers/lowe/
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Category Archives: Science
The Four Basic Electronic Components
A fourfold has recently been in the news. The physical realization of the memristor completes the four basic electronic components, along with the resistor, capacitor, and inductor. Theorized to exist since 1971, the memristor may revolutionize computational devices.
References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memristor
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A Story for Everyone
Wouldn’t it be nice if everyone had a common story we could all learn and share? A story about who we are, what we are, and maybe even a little about the how and the why. Could it be told in such a way that each of us could accept it as our very own? A film and companion book coming out soon will attempt just that, titled Journey of the Universe.
Previous books by Loyal Rue and Brian Swimme have tried to achieve this ideal. Swimme is involved in this new movie, and is the narrator. Rue’s book is a personal favorite. Astrophysicist Eric J. Chaisson has written many books on this topic. Their common theme is evolution, expanded from the biological to encompass the cosmos. Cosmic evolution, if you will.
Evolution merely means change over time, i.e. transformation. Most people agree that things have changed over time, but many disagree on how much, how long, and how come. How can we decide what information to accept, and what to reject? The great unifier of human knowledge is science, yet science is often disparaged even while making the modern world possible. Partially, I’m sure, for that very reason.
Different cultures have had their own creation stories since the very beginning of humanity. Many have said that a large part of being human is the impulse to tell and the need to hear stories. All narratives are built from atomic parts that answer questions: who, what, how, and why. Or, to cast them into modal verbs: may, can, must, and should. Who may? Intention or agency: the characters. What can? Chance or contingency: the setting. How must? Structure or necessity: the plot. Why should? Obligation or responsibility: the theme.
Would a story simplistic enough for everyone to accept be so dilute as to be worthless? All life as we know it requires water, and pure water is ultimately ‘diluted’. But water is certainly not worthless. Daniel Dennett calls the concept of evolution the ‘universal acid’, an alchemical alkahest. Can we replace the corrosive acid in his metaphor with sustaining and nurturing water?
http://www.journeyoftheuniverse.org/
Loyal Rue / Everybody’s Story: Wising Up to the Epic of Evolution
Brian Swimme / The Universe Story: From the Primordial Flaring Forth to the Ecozoic Era–A Celebration of the Unfolding of the Cosmos
Daniel Dennett / Darwin’s Dangerous Idea: evolution and the meaning of life
Eric J. Chaisson / Epic of Evolution: seven ages of the cosmos
Marjolein Groefsema / Can, May, Must and Should: A Relevance Theoretic Account, in Journal of Linguistics, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Mar., 1995), pp. 53-79
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Kevin Kelly’s Philosophy of Technology
Kevin Kelly’s new book “What Technology Wants” is an exploration of what technology is and what it does. Technology has many of the same attributes as biological evolution, and as such, its effects cannot be fully predicted. At best, we can try to evaluate a particular technology’s advantages and dangers before it is let loose into the world; at worst, we will have no control over it at all.
Kelly describes evolution as shaped by structural, historical, and functional factors; and goes on the describe technology as dependent on structural, historical, and intentional factors. However, he also maintains that technology is an evolutionary process, and evolution in turn is a technological process. Kelly seems to say both processes have all four of the factors shown in the double dual above.
Kelly says that human language is the first big human technology (or was it fire? or stone tools?). But I also agree with him that the mechanisms of biological evolution can be considered technology. What is technique except a method that can shared and perpetuated by others? Molecular genetics grants us the ability to pass (most of) our attributes on to our progeny, including the ability to pass (most of) their attributes on to theirs. Once techniques can be shown or told to others, biology becomes the basis for the showing or telling, but not the mechanism of it.
Kelly calls the entire system of evolution/technology the technium. Because we have been continually shaped by our human technologies, they are not foreign to us. On the whole, we are better with them, than without them. One could argue that without them we wouldn’t even be human!
References:
Kevin Kelly / What Technology Wants
NYT Review of What Technology Wants
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The Duality of Time and Information
The states of a computing system bear information and change time, while its events bear time and change information.
— from The Duality of Time and Information by Vaughan Pratt
The most promising transformational logic seems to us to be Girard’s linear logic.
— from Rational Mechanics and Natural Mathematics by Vaughan Pratt
References:
Vaughan Pratt / The Duality of Time and Information http://boole.stanford.edu/pub/dti.pdf
Vaughan Pratt / Time and Information in Sequential and Concurrent Computation http://boole.stanford.edu/pub/tppp.pdf
Vaughan Pratt / Rational Mechanics and Natural Mathematics http://chu.stanford.edu/guide.html#ratmech
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Aristotle’s Four Causes
Material: That from which something is made.
Efficient: That by which something is made.
Formal: That into which something is made.
Final: That for the sake of which something is made.
— from Aristotle for Everybody by Mortimer Adler
“Happy is he who can recognize the causes of things.”
— Virgil
Aristotle’s Four Causes is likely the most familiar of all the double duals that I will present. The causes are closer to being “becauses” since they are usually thought of as the reasons or explanations for things. Why not call them the four prepositions?
The standard example of the four causes is what is needed for the building of a house. A house is built by the craftsmen, from the raw materials, into the form shown on blueprints, for the homeowner to live in. This and other usual examples are concerned with the making of something.
Formal and final causes have gotten the short shift since the beginning of the scientific revolution. Francis Bacon stated that the only scientific reasons for things were the efficient and material causes. For those critical of materialism this is often termed mere “matter in motion”. Matter can be thought to exist in space, and motion in time. Where does form or finality exist? I will say in space and time as well.
References:
Max Hocutt / Aristotle’s Four Becauses, in Philosophy, Vol. 49, No. 190. (Oct., 1974), pp. 385-399.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_causes
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_purpose_of_a_system_is_what_it_does
http://faculty.washington.edu/smcohen/320/4causes.htm
Notes:
John Sowa’s Thematic Roles: initiator, resource, essence, goal.
http://www.jfsowa.com/ontology/thematic.htm
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The Here and the Now
Whosoever speculated on these four things, it were better for him if he had not come into the world —
- what is above?
- what is beneath?
- what was beforetime?
- and what will be hereafter?
— From the Mishnah (Hagigah 2:1)
All things have a root and a top; all events an end and a beginning. Whoever understands correctly what comes first and what follows draws nearer the Dao.
— From T’ai Hioh by Confucius
As above, so below.
— From The Emerald Tablet
I like these quotes because they show that Above, Below, Before and After are linked together. The first quote gives a warning about thinking about these concepts, but the second, encouragement. Above and below, or higher and lower, can be thought of as directions in space, but also as terms of hierarchy. Before and after can be thought of as directions in time, but also as beginnings and endings, causes and results.
Every individual is situated in space and time (see SpaceTime). Every perspective is due to expression and content (see Hjelmslev’s Net). Here is space, now is time.
References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerald_Tablet
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Equivalent Exchange 